999999999999999
Hence, improving the performance and
achievements of governmental agencies depends upon reinventing old procedures and
rocking the boat of conservative paradigms and conventional work practices
Hence, infusing new and creative managerial practices into public systems and in service
of very demanding citizens must involve a comprehensive set of change-oriented
behaviors among public personnel, across organizations and in various work environments
(Saner 2001). One of the most significant elements
that these changes entail is employing an increasingly large percentage of highly skilled and
knowledge-based employees who are committed to disseminating change. These professional
public servants are expected to have a greater say in how to organize and perform
their tasks and to formulate new ideas (Saner 2001) that affect the actual services provided
to citizens. The public managers are similarly expected to mobilize their workers to innovate
and to make constructive changes at all levels of the organization (Chiun et al.
2006; Davis 2004). Behaviors such as change-oriented OCB play a major role in public organizations.
Recently, a growing number of studies have pointed to the importance of organizational
commitment, public sector motivation (PSM), and psychological contracts to public organizations
(e.g., Coggburn et al. 2010; Coyle-Shapiro and Kessler 2003). However, OCB and
change-oriented OCB are hardly mentioned in public administration research and theory. A
search of the literature revealed that with the exception of only a few studies (i.e., Koberg
et al. 2005; Vigoda 2000), this phenomenon has not yet left an imprint on our discipline.
A growing debate about reforms in the public sector has simultaneously highlighted the role
of leadership and its contribution to planned change. Public managers as professional leaders
of governmental institutions are increasingly called on to engage in activities that rebuild
organizational structures, improve processes, and create constructive cultures for both
public servants and citizens. They are expected to create robust institutional capacity
through the strategic management of people, programs, and partnerships (Van Slyke
and Alexander 2006). In fact, one of the major concerns and challenges of public organizations
today is to establish effective management leadership, one that can maximize the
public interest, and to do it on a very tight budget.
Managers use various leadership behaviors to influence the situational goals and
behaviors of their followers (Bettencourt 2004). The literature usually distinguishes between
two major leadership styles: transformational and transactional leadership
Organizational politics --- political leaderships can respond to that --- Internal politics in organizations has long been recognized as meaningful for individuals
and organizations. Although organizational politics is evident in any type of organization, it
is consistently much higher in the public sector than in the private sector (Vigoda-Gadot
and Kapun 2005). Politics in organizations, and especially in public agencies, is a controversial
phenomenon. Many studies mention its objective nature, having both constructive
and destructive effects on employees and citizens as clients (e.g., Ferris et al. 1989; Vigoda-
Gadot and Kapun 2005). According to Bolman and Deal (1991), organizational political
leadership may be viewed as a positive and pragmatic style of leadership for dealing with
continuing conflicts and competition and for achieving organizational compromises.
However, this study followed the conventional approach in the literature that views
organizational politics as workplace activities that can result in negative or destructive
work outcomes (Vigoda 2000). A majority of the empirical studies in this field have used
a perceptual approach and focused on judgments about workplace politics by individuals.
Employees were usually asked to report whether a specific action or decision was within the
parameters of sanctioned behavior (Randall et al. 1999). Randall et al. (1999) defined organizational
politics as unsanctioned influence attempts that seek to promote self-interests
at the expense of organizational goals. POPS are most commonly measured using the scale
developed by Kacmar and Ferris (1991).
In accordance with the definition by Randall et al. (1999), strong perceptions about the
presence of organizational politics are related to weaker job involvement (Cropanzano et al.
1997), reduced job satisfaction (Ferris and Kacmar 1992; Gandz and Murray 1980), withdrawal
from the organization (Gilmore et al. 1996), increased job anxiety and stress
(Ferris et al. 1994; Vigoda 2002), and poorer performance of the organization and the individual
(Vigoda 2000; Witt 1998). The negative impact of politics stems from the fact that
politics affects both the economic and social aspects of the employer-employee exchange
(Witt 1998).
Organizational politics has also been associated with perceptions of fairness and justice
(Cropanzano et al. 1997; Ferris et al. 1989; Ferris and Kacmar 1992). According to
Ferris and Kacmar (1992), employees who score high on the POPS scale feel, there is less
procedural justice, fairness, and equity in their work environment. Employees who feel they
have been treated unfairly for political reasons are inclined to react by reducing the
voluntary contributions they make to the organization and weakening their ties with it.
Such a reaction is especially evident in public sector organizations where tenure in
a job is important and employees are less inclined to leave even if they feel they have been
mistreated (Vigoda-Gadot 2007a). Instead, they turn to less risky responses such as refraining
from volunteering their services or engaging in extra-role activities. Hence, the psychological
‘‘escape route’’ from a highly political atmosphere can become reduced
engagement in OCB, especially in change-oriented OCB.
However, a more thorough examination of the literature suggests that this relationship
between perceptions of politics and work outcomes such as OCBs may not be direct. For
example, according to Kacmar et al. (2007), POPS moderate the relationship between LMX
and employees’ work effort. If the work environment is perceived as political (a situation
that is particularly relevant for public sector organizations), the work effort of those with
high-quality LMX relationships may be greater than those with low-quality LMX relationships.
In addition, the quality of the LMX relationship with the supervisor affects POPS.
Employees who enjoy a high-quality LMX relationship with their supervisor may feel protected
from a lack of clear rules, ambiguity, and unfairness. Put differently, they perceive
the work environment as less threatening and less (negatively) political. However, those
with poor relationships with their supervisor may feel much less protected and therefore
view the work environment as more (negatively) political (Kacmar et al. 2007). Similarly,
poorer LMX was positively associated with perceptions about the supervisor’s political
behavior (Ferris and Kacmar 1992). Therefore, and according to Scandura (1999),
LMX may be viewed through the lens of organizational justice as well. Any leadership
actions that reduce perceptions of politics (or justice) in the workgroup will also contribute
to the improvement of work outcomes such as change-oriented OCB. Vigoda-Gadot
(2007a) examined the relationship between leadership style, organizational politics, and
employee’s performance (in a public sector setting) and found that whereas POPS had
a negative relationship with transformational leadership, it simultaneously had a positive
relationship with transactional leadership. Similarly, and in line with Pillai et al. (1999) and
Ehrhart (2004), it was argued that a transformational leader whose influence derives from
his or her high levels of professionalism and personal integrity can create an environment of
creativity, trust, commitment, involvement, satisfaction, and excellence in the organization.
Therefore, transformational leadership has characteristics that can reduce POPS
among public employees and indirectly enhance change-oriented OCB. In contrast, a transactional
leadership style is characterized by negotiation about interests, the reward system,
interest-based relationships, and struggles over limited resources. All these issues are evident
in a political environment (Vigoda-Gadot 2007a). On the other hand, a transactional
leader may enhance a rational and transparent give-and-take system, while maintaining
a fair environment that can reduce POPS among public employees. All things considered,
a transactional leader whose influence derives from his or her position of authority has the
ability to reduce POPS and motivate public employees to engage in change-oriented OCB.
In contrast, the ability of a transformational leader to achieve this goal is more limited.
Aggregatingall these arguments that are based on past knowledge,wemayconclude that
previous studies point to (1) a direct relationship between leadership style and LMX on one
hand and POPS on the other and (2) an indirect relationship between LMX and change-oriented
OCB, where POPS plays a moderating role. When POPS is high, the relationship between
the quality of the LMX and change-oriented OCB will be stronger and more positive
than when POPS is low. In addition, when POPS is low, change-orientedOCBresulting from
LMX will be higher than when POPS is high. Thus, we suggest H3 and H4 as follows:
However, a review of the literature shows that knowledge of organizational change management is limited in several ways. Surely, several factors have been identified to antecede recipient responses to change, namely, individual dispositions, change content, context, process, and leadership (Ahmad & Cheng, 2018; Oreg et al., 2011). While none of them offers empirical insights into the relationship between diverse styles of public leadership (PLs) and TCB, let alone specifying the underlying psychological processes linking PLs and TCB. Hence, it is unclear how and to what extent psychological factors mediate the relationship between PLs and TCB. Furthermore, although research on public employee responses to organizational change is increasing, a recent literature review by Kuipers et al. (2014) on managing organizational change in public organizations showed that most of the publications on change management are from the United States/Anglo-Saxons that could be biased in terms of results (Kuipers et al., 2014). Thus, not much research has been conducted in non-Western (cf. Ahmad & Cheng, 2018).
In an attempt to address these concerns in the literature
First, a number of studies have suggested that the specific characteristics of public sector organizations make the organizational change management in public sector organizations distinct from the private sector (By & Macleod, 2009; van der Voet, 2015), but most studies examining issues related to organizational change have focused on private sector organizations (Coram & Burnes, 2001). Second, rather than focusing on a more micro-level and individual perspective on change, public management research concerning organizational change has traditionally focused on change at the sector or national level (i.e., macro-level; Pollitt & Bouckaert, 2011). Hence, attention to micro-processes in public sector organizations seems almost automatically absent (Kuipers et al., 2014). Third, research related to management of organizational change has mostly been addressed in Western, non-Islamic countries (Yousef, 2000). A number of studies have indicated that organizational change is situational; that is, what works in one country, organization, or culture may well produce failure in a different situation (Jacobs, van, Witteloostuijn, & Christe-Zeyse, 2013). Despite such potential differences, no empirical research has examined the generalizability of Western studies to a non-Western, Muslim-majority country like Kurdistan Region of Iraq. Islam is the most influential force in Muslim-majority countries that influences and regulates individual and group behavior (Ali, 1996). Islamic teachings; values and culture, which place great emphasis on group loyalty; and respect for the family may influence employees in the work setting (Ali, Taqi, & Krishnan, 1997). Islamic teachings and values, if correctly identified and understood, may facilitate organizational change and development (Yousef, 2000). Therefore, this sort of work setting may influence both attitudes toward change and the antecedents that are most important in predicting employees’ attitudes toward change.
To move beyond existing literature which has fragmented our view of antecedents of employees’ attitudes toward change and gain a comprehensive understanding of organizational change in public sector organizations, this study aims to account for the specific context of public organizations in Kurdistan Region of Iraq where many changes are announced by political leaders, but very few are actually implemented. Third, to contribute to the growing line of research about organizational change in a non-Western, Islamic setting. Hence, this study is expected to contribute to the generalizability of the existing body of research, which is done mostly in Western settings to non-Western settings in general and Islamic settings in particular.
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